Viking Society and Daily Life: What Vikings Really Did Besides Raiding - Part 1

The morning sun illuminated the bustling settlement of Hedeby in southern Denmark, circa 950 CE. Smoke rose from hundreds of workshops where craftsmen hammered metal, carved bone, and wove cloth. Merchants haggled in multiple languages over amber from the Baltic, silver from Baghdad, and wine from the Rhine. Children played between the wooden walkways while women tended gardens and livestock. A thing assembly convened to settle a property dispute, while nearby, a shipwright supervised the construction of a new trading vessel. This scene—peaceful, prosperous, and productive—represents the reality of Viking life far more accurately than any battlefield. For every Viking who ever raised a sword in anger, dozens lived their entire lives as farmers, craftsmen, traders, and fishermen. The Viking Age wasn't defined by constant warfare but by the daily rhythms of agricultural life, the bonds of family and community, and the gradual development of complex societies that would evolve into modern Scandinavian nations. Understanding what Vikings really did besides raiding reveals a sophisticated culture that valued law, art, commerce, and family as much as martial prowess. ### The Agricultural Foundation of Viking Society Agriculture formed the economic and social foundation of Viking Age Scandinavia. Approximately 90% of the population engaged primarily in farming, with even warriors and traders maintaining agricultural holdings. The image of Vikings as pure warriors ignores the reality that most Norse people spent their lives clearing land, planting crops, tending livestock, and struggling against Scandinavia's challenging climate and terrain. Archaeological evidence from thousands of farm sites reveals sophisticated agricultural practices adapted to diverse environments from Iceland's volcanic soils to Denmark's fertile plains. Viking farms were largely self-sufficient units producing food, clothing, tools, and building materials. The typical farm centered on the longhouse, a rectangular building that could stretch 30 meters or more, housing extended families, servants, slaves, and sometimes livestock under one roof. These structures, built with timber frames and walls of wood, stone, or turf depending on local materials, featured central hearths for warmth and cooking, raised platforms along the walls for sleeping and storage, and carefully planned ventilation systems to manage smoke. Excavations reveal sophisticated construction techniques, including foundation drainage, insulation with turf and moss, and flexible joints that allowed buildings to withstand severe weather. Crop cultivation varied by region but typically included barley, oats, rye, and occasionally wheat in favorable locations. Barley, the most important cereal, provided food for humans and animals plus the essential ingredient for ale production. Vikings practiced crop rotation and fertilization with animal manure and seaweed in coastal areas. Field systems, visible in aerial photography and landscape archaeology, show organized agricultural planning with enclosed fields, boundary markers, and irrigation channels. Pollen analysis reveals that Vikings cleared extensive forests for agriculture, fundamentally transforming Scandinavian landscapes. Livestock were equally crucial to Viking agriculture. Cattle provided milk, meat, leather, and pulling power for plows. The size and number of cattle owned indicated wealth and status—the Old Norse word for money, "fé," originally meant cattle. Sheep and goats, better adapted to marginal lands, provided wool, milk, and meat. Pigs, efficient converters of waste and forest forage into meat, were common on most farms. Horses, while expensive to maintain, were essential for transportation, warfare, and status display. Chickens, geese, and ducks provided eggs and meat, while some farms kept bees for honey, the only sweetener available. ### Craftsmanship and Manufacturing Viking Age Scandinavia supported diverse craft production ranging from household manufacturing to specialized workshops producing goods for long-distance trade. Every farm produced basic necessities—women spun thread, wove cloth, and made clothing while men crafted wooden tools, repaired buildings, and maintained equipment. However, specialized craftsmen in towns and market centers produced higher-quality goods that were traded across Europe and beyond. Metalworking held special importance in Viking society. Blacksmiths commanded respect for their ability to transform iron into tools and weapons. Every community needed a smith for agricultural implements, household items, and repairs. Elite smiths produced pattern-welded sword blades, intricate jewelry, and decorated weapons that were artworks as much as functional objects. Archaeological evidence from smithies reveals sophisticated techniques including carburization to produce steel, welding different grades of iron, and complex heat treatment processes. The mystique surrounding metalworking is evident in mythology—the gods themselves relied on dwarf smiths for their greatest treasures. Textile production occupied much of women's time and represented a major economic activity. The process from raw wool to finished cloth involved multiple steps: shearing, cleaning, combing, spinning, dyeing, weaving, and finishing. Archaeological finds of spindle whorls, loom weights, and textile fragments occur at virtually every Viking Age site. Textile analysis reveals sophisticated techniques including tablet weaving for decorative bands, complex twill patterns, and use of multiple colors including expensive imported dyes. The Oseberg ship burial contained numerous textiles demonstrating extraordinary skill, including tapestries depicting complex scenes that might have served as wall hangings in great halls. Woodworking pervaded Viking life from shipbuilding to everyday utensils. Viking woodworkers possessed remarkable skills, creating everything from elaborate carved decoration to precision joint work. The survival of wooden artifacts in waterlogged conditions reveals the range of wooden objects: furniture, buckets, bowls, cups, combs, toys, and gaming pieces. Decorative carving in various styles—from geometric patterns to elaborate interlaced animals—adorned both everyday objects and prestigious items. The same techniques that created Viking ships produced sophisticated wooden architecture, furniture, and household goods. ### Trade and Commerce in Viking Communities Commerce was as central to Viking life as warfare, with many Vikings being traders first and raiders second—or switching between roles as opportunities arose. Markets and trading centers dotted the Viking world, from small seasonal gatherings to major urban centers. These weren't just economic nodes but social and political centers where news spread, alliances formed, and cultures mixed. Archaeological excavations at trading sites reveal cosmopolitan communities where Scandinavians, Slavs, Arabs, Franks, and Anglo-Saxons lived and worked together. Major trading towns like Birka in Sweden, Hedeby in Denmark, Kaupang in Norway, and Jorvik (York) in England were sophisticated urban centers with planned streets, designated market areas, workshops, warehouses, and harbors. Hedeby, strategically located near the base of the Jutland peninsula, connected North Sea and Baltic trade routes. At its peak around 1000 CE, it housed perhaps 1,500 permanent residents with many more visiting traders. Excavations reveal workshops producing glass beads, metalwork, leather goods, textiles, and carved items from amber, antler, and walrus ivory. The range of goods traded in Viking markets was extraordinary. From Scandinavia came furs, amber, walrus ivory, and slaves. From the British Isles came tin, wool, and hunting dogs. The Rhineland provided wine, glass, and high-quality weapons. The Byzantine Empire and Islamic world supplied silk, spices, silver coins, and exotic luxuries. Even Chinese silk has been found in Viking Age Scandinavia, having traveled along trade routes spanning continents. This trade wasn't just in luxuries—bulk goods like grain, salt, iron, and millstones were essential for communities lacking local sources. Trade required supporting institutions and practices. Standard weights and measures, necessary for fair exchange, evolved during the Viking Age. Numerous finds of folding scales and standardized weights demonstrate concern for accurate measurement. While much trade involved barter, silver functioned as currency, whether as coins or hack-silver (cut pieces of silver objects). The thousands of Arabic dirhams found in Scandinavia testify to the importance of eastern trade. Credit arrangements, partnerships, and investment agreements, described in later medieval sources, likely existed in simpler forms during the Viking Age. ### Law, Justice, and Social Order Contrary to popular perception of Vikings as lawless barbarians, Norse society operated under sophisticated legal systems that regulated everything from property rights to personal injury compensation. The thing assemblies, where free men gathered to hear cases, make laws, and conduct public business, represented one of medieval Europe's most democratic institutions. These assemblies operated at multiple levels—local things for routine matters, regional assemblies for serious cases, and in Iceland, the Althing functioned as a national parliament and supreme court. Viking law was primarily oral tradition, memorized and recited by law speakers who could quote relevant precedents and procedures. The Icelandic law speaker was expected to recite one-third of the law code each year at the Althing, completing the entire corpus over three years. Later written law codes, like Iceland's Grágás and Norway's Gulathing law, preserve Viking Age legal traditions. These laws reveal sophisticated understanding of property rights, contract obligations, inheritance rules, and criminal justice. The concept of honor and compensation dominated Viking justice. Most offenses could be resolved through payment of compensation (wergild) to injured parties. Detailed schedules specified compensation for various injuries—the loss of an eye, hand, or tooth had predetermined values. Even killing could be compensated, though the amount varied with the victim's social status. This system aimed to prevent blood feuds by providing honorable alternatives to revenge. When compensation failed, formal duels (holmgang) could settle disputes, conducted under strict rules on designated islands or marked spaces. Outlawry served as the ultimate sanction for severe crimes or refusal to accept legal judgments. Lesser outlawry lasted three years, during which the outlaw had to leave the country. Full outlawry was permanent—the outlaw became a "wolf" who could be killed without legal consequence, couldn't receive help, and lost all property. Saga accounts of outlaws like Grettir the Strong reveal the harsh reality of this punishment. The threat of outlawry encouraged compliance with legal decisions in societies lacking police forces or prisons. ### Family Structure and Domestic Life The family unit (ætt) formed the basic building block of Viking society, providing identity, protection, and economic support. Extended families including three generations might share a longhouse, with nuclear families occupying designated spaces. Family loyalty superseded most other obligations—kinsmen were expected to support each other in legal disputes, blood feuds, and economic ventures. The strength of kinship bonds is evident in the prevalence of blood feuds, where entire families became involved in cycles of revenge. Marriage in Viking society was primarily an economic and political alliance between families rather than romantic union. Marriages were arranged by families, with the bride-price (mundr) paid to the bride's family and dowry provided by her family. Despite arranged marriages, sources suggest affection often developed between spouses. Divorce was relatively easy to obtain, particularly for women, who could divorce husbands for violence, neglect, or even excessive display of chest hair through overly open shirts. Divorced women retained their dowries and could remarry freely. Children were valued but faced harsh realities. Infant mortality was high, with perhaps one-third dying before age five. Exposure of unwanted infants, while illegal after Christianization, occurred during pagan times, particularly for deformed babies or during famines. Surviving children were cherished, as evidenced by toy finds and saga accounts of parental affection. Children participated in farm work from an early age, learning essential skills through observation and practice. Boys received weapons training, while girls learned textile production and household management. The household extended beyond blood relations to include servants, slaves, and foster children. Fostering, where children were raised by other families, created alliance networks and provided education opportunities. Wealthy families might foster children of lower-status allies, creating patron-client relationships. Foster bonds were considered as strong as blood relationships—foster brothers who swore oaths of loyalty created warrior partnerships celebrated in sagas. ### Entertainment and Leisure Activities Vikings enjoyed diverse entertainments that provided respite from agricultural labor and strengthened social bonds. Feasting held central importance, combining hospitality, entertainment, and political networking. Great halls of chiefs and kings hosted elaborate feasts featuring multiple courses, copious alcohol, and entertainment from skalds (poets), musicians, and storytellers. These events reinforced social hierarchies through seating arrangements and gift-giving while providing forums for alliance building and information exchange. Storytelling and poetry occupied winter evenings when darkness and weather confined people indoors. The oral tradition preserved history, mythology, and family genealogies through generations. Skilled storytellers commanded respect and rewards for their ability to entertain and educate. The complex poetic forms of skaldic verse, with their intricate meters, alliteration, and kennings (metaphorical expressions), required years to master. Court skalds held prestigious positions, commemorating their patrons' deeds and ensuring their immortality through verse. Board games provided entertainment and social interaction. Hnefatafl, a strategy game where a king and defenders faced attackers, was played throughout the Viking world. Archaeological finds include elaborate gaming pieces of bone, antler, glass, and amber, indicating the game's importance. Dice games, evidenced by numerous dice finds, provided gambling opportunities. Chess, introduced from the Islamic world through trade contacts, appeared in Scandinavia by the late Viking Age, as demonstrated by the famous Lewis chessmen. Physical activities and sports maintained fitness while providing entertainment. Swimming, skiing, and ice skating were practical skills that became competitive activities. Wrestling and other combat sports prepared young men for warfare while providing spectacular entertainment. Saga accounts describe ball games similar to hockey played on ice, though rules remain unclear. Horse fighting, where stallions fought for dominance while handlers encouraged them, drew large crowds and heavy betting. ### Health, Medicine, and Hygiene Viking Age Scandinavians maintained surprisingly good hygiene by medieval standards, contradicting stereotypes of filthy barbarians. Saturday was bath day (laugardagr in Old Norse, which became "lördag" in modern Scandinavian languages), when Vikings washed thoroughly. Public bath houses existed in towns, while rural populations used saunas or washing in heated water. Archaeological finds of combs, tweezers, razors, and ear spoons demonstrate attention to grooming. The Arab chronicler Ibn Rustah noted that Vikings were very clean, though Ibn Fadlan famously criticized their communal washing practices. Medical knowledge combined practical experience with magical beliefs. Skeletal evidence shows Vikings could successfully treat fractures, dislocations, and wounds. Some skeletons show well-healed breaks that required setting and immobilization. Trepanation (skull drilling) was performed, with some patients surviving as shown by bone regrowth. Herbs and natural remedies treated various ailments—archaeological evidence includes medicinal herbs in graves and specialized medical implements. Dental health varied considerably. While Vikings didn't have refined sugar, causing fewer cavities than modern populations, tooth wear from coarse bread containing stone particles from querns was severe. Some skulls show evidence of deliberate dental modification—horizontal grooves filed into teeth, possibly for decoration or identification. Tooth loss was common in older individuals, affecting nutrition and health. Disease and epidemics periodically devastated Viking populations. Skeletal evidence reveals tuberculosis, leprosy, and various infectious diseases. The close quarters of longhouses facilitated disease transmission. Malnutrition during bad harvests weakened immunity, increasing susceptibility to illness. Child mortality was high, with evidence of rickets and other deficiency diseases. Despite these challenges, some Vikings lived into their 60s and 70s, achieving lifespans comparable to later medieval populations. ### Education and Knowledge Transmission Viking Age education was primarily informal, based on observation, participation, and oral instruction. Children learned by watching and helping adults, gradually taking on more complex tasks. Boys accompanied fathers to things, markets, and sometimes raids, learning law, trade, and warfare. Girls worked alongside mothers and other women, mastering the complex skills of household management and textile production. Formal education existed mainly for specialized roles. Aspiring skalds studied under masters, memorizing vast corpuses of poetry and mythology while learning complex verse forms. Law speakers underwent extensive training to memorize legal